Enhancing Domestic Wastewater Treatment by Spirulina platensis in a Photobioreactor Through Light Intensity Control
Received: 25 January 2026 | Revised: 8 March 2026 | Accepted: 15 March 2026 | Online: 6 June 2026
Corresponding author: Roslinda Ibrahim
Abstract
Untreated domestic wastewater can pollute the environment and pose risks to human health. Biological treatment using microalgae offers a promising approach to reducing the concentrations of nutrients and organic compounds in wastewater. Spirulina platensis is a microalgal species capable of utilizing organic compounds in wastewater through photosynthesis. This study aimed to analyze the effect of light intensity on the efficiency of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) removal from domestic wastewater used as a microalgal growth medium. The research further explored the potential of photobioreactor-based innovations to reduce wastewater contaminants under varying light intensities of 3000, 4000, and 5000 lux. A quantitative experimental approach was used to evaluate the effectiveness of Spirulina platensis in treating domestic wastewater. The results showed that optimal N and P removal occurred at a light intensity of 5000 lux, with removal efficiencies after 7 days of treatment of 90.35% and 90.45% for N and P, respectively. This light intensity created favorable conditions for photosynthesis, supporting optimal microalgal growth and improving the efficiency of contaminant removal from wastewater. These findings highlight the potential of microalgae-based photobioreactors as an effective and sustainable alternative for treating domestic wastewater.
Keywords:
photobioreactor, microalgae bioremediation, nutrient removal, light intensity control, Spirulina platensisReferences
B. Koul, D. Yadaf, S. Singh, M. Kumar, M. Song, Insights into the Domestic Wastewater Treatment (DWWT) Regimes: A Review. Water, 14, no. 21, pp. 1–29, Nov, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213542.
M.Y.D. Alazaiza, S. He, D. Su, S.S. Abu Amr, P.Y. Toh, M.J.K. Bashir, Sewage water treatment using Chlorella vulgaris microalgae for simultaneous nutrient separation and biomass production. Separations, Vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 1–3, March, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations10040229
A.A. Mahessar, A.L.Qureshi, A. Pathan, K. Ansari, K.C. Mukwana, S.M.Kori, Impact of Encroachment and Hyderabad City Effluents on Pinyari Canal, Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, Vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 5784–5789, June, 2020. https://doi.org/10.48084/etasr.3507
A.A. Mahessar, S. Qureshi, A.L. Qureshi, K. Ansari, G.H. Dars, Impact of the Effluents of Hyderabad City, Tando Muhammad Khan, and Matli on Phuleli Canal Water, Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, Vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 55281–5287, February 2020. https://doi.org/10.48084/etasr.3269
P.R. Rout, M.K. Shahid, R.R. Dash, P. Bhunia, D. Liu, S. Varjani, T.C. Zhang, R.Y. Surampalli, Nutrient removal from domestic wastewater: a comprehensive review on conventional and advanced technologies. J Environ Manage, Vol. 296, no. 113246, Oct, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113246
N. Hassan and H. Alewi, Wastewater Quality Assessment at Amarah Sewage Treatment Plant: Implications for Agricultural Use and Environmental Safety. Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, Vol. 14, no.6, pp. 18014-18019, Dec, 2024. https://doi.org/10.48084/etasr.8809
R. Ibrahim, A. Akil, A. Zubair, G. Samudro, H. Samudro, S. Mangkoedihardjo, Improving Hasanuddin University lake water quality by controlling contamination sources and biological monitoring systems. Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences, Vol. 114, no. 1, pp. 166–177, Feb, 2024. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.114.1.166177
A. Abdelfattah, S.S. Ali, H. Ramadan, et al., Microalgae-based wastewater treatment: Mechanisms, challenges, recent advances, and future prospects. Environmental Science and Ecotechnology, Vol. 13, pp. 1–18, Jan, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ese.2022.100205
A. López-Sánchez, A.L. Silva-Gálvez, M.E. González-López, et al., Valorization of livestock waste through combined anaerobic digestion and microalgae-based treatment in México: A techno-economic analysis for distributed biogas generation, animal feed production, and carbon credits trading. Environmental Technology & Innovation, Vol. 32, no. 103321, Nov, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2023.103321
I. Ahmad, N. Abdullah, I. Koji, A. Yuzir, S.E. Muhammad, Evolution of photobioreactors: A review based on microalgal perspective. In: IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. Purpose-Led Publishing, Vol. 1142, no. 012004, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/1142/1/012004
S. Kumar, T. Korra, U.B. Singh, S. Singh, K. Bisen, Microalgal-based biostimulants as an alleviator of biotic and abiotic stresses in crop plants. In: New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering, pp. 195–216, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85577-8.00013-5.
T. Kong, A. Li, L. Zhang, Microalgae-based wastewater treatment: mechanisms, strategies, and the role of biochemical composition. J Environ Chem Eng 118131, Oct, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.118131
S.F. Siqueira, M.I. Queiroz, L.Q. Zepka, E. Jacob-Lopes, Introductory chapter: Microalgae biotechnology – A brief introduction. In: Microalgal Biotechnology, pp. 1–12, Jun, 2018. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73250
D.I.P. Jhouhanggir, A. Pertiwiningrum, N.A. FitriyantO, E.A. Suyono, Sustainable cultivation of microalgae Euglena sp. IDN 22 using anaerobic digested manure wastewater: Integrating circular bioeconomy principles in agroindustry. Journal of Ecological Engineering, Vol. 26, no. 8, pp. 238–248, 2015. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/203982
R. Raheem, A. Abdul, P. Prinsen, A.K. Vuppaladadiyam, M. Zhao, R. Luque, A review on sustainable microalgae-based biofuel and bioenergy production: Recent developments. Journal of Cleaner Production, 181: 42–59, April, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.125
W. Solomon, L. Mutum, T. Janda, Z. Molnár, Potential benefit of microalgae and their interaction with bacteria for sustainable crop production. Plant Growth Regulation, Vol. 101, pp. 53–65, Jun, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-023-01019-8
C.F. Moreno-Crus, O. Tzintzun-Camacho, M.C. González-Joaquín, et al., Livestock wastewater as a microalgae growth medium for potential production of biodiesel in arid areas of Mexico. Algal Research, Vol. 86: no. 103957, Mar, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2025.103957
M. Zabochnicka, Industrial wastewater as a growth medium for microalgal biomass for a sustainable circular bioeconomy. Applied Sciences, Vol. 12, no. 20. 10299, pp. 1-14, Oct, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122010299
A.S. Japar, M.S.S. Takriff, N.M.H. Yasin, Microalgae acclimatisation in industrial wastewater and its effect on growth and primary metabolite composition. Algal Research, Vol. 32, no. 102163, Mar, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2020.102163
I.S. Rahmatina, H.S. Titah, H. Pratikno, I.F. Purwanti, Microalgae Chlorella vulgaris response in heavy metal lead media contamination. Journal of Ecological Engineering, Vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 129–138, Mar, 2025. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/200703
E. Elvitriana, E. Munir, D. Delvian, H. Wahyuningsih, Organic substances reduction in palm oil mill effluent (POME) after cultivation with locally isolated microalgae. Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences, Vol. 80, no. 2, pp. 98–105, 2021. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.80.2.98105
Y. Wan, n. Yan, j. Zhao, H. Zhi, W. Wang, Trends and progress in microalgae-based wastewater treatment technologies: A review. In: 6th International Conference on Materials Science, Energy Technology and Environmental. Vol. 38, no. 01014, Sep, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202130801014
K. Paiki, J.D. Kalor, Nitrate and phosphate distribution related to phytoplankton abundance in East Yapen coastal water. JFMR – Journal of Fisheries and Marine Research, Vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 65–71, Oct, 2017. https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.jfmr.2017.001.02.3
M. Megawati, A. Damayanti, R.D.A. Putri, I.N. Pradnya, K. Hotimah, Y. Satriawan, The drying rate of Chlorella pyrenoidosa using an oven in bioethanol production. Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences, Vol. 80, no. 1, pp. 128–136, 2021. https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.80.1.128136
V. Alfonsín, R. Maceiras, C. Gutiérrez, Bioethanol production from industrial algae waste. Waste Management, Vol. 87, pp. 791–797, Mar, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.03.019
V. Žunić, T. Hajnal-Jafari, D. Stamenov, S. Djuric, et al., Application of microalgae-based biostimulants in sustainable strawberry production. Journal of Applied Phycology, Vol. 36, pp. 1219–1231, Jan, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.03.019
J. Garcia-Gonzalez, m. Sommerfeld, Biofertilizer and biostimulant properties of the microalga Acutodesmus dimorphus. Journal of Applied Phycology, Vol. 28, pp. 1051–1661, May, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-015-0625-2
F.M. Ortega-Blas, J.C. Ramos-Saravia, P.L. Cossío-Rodríguez, Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus from municipal wastewater through cultivation of microalgae Chlorella sp. in consortium. Water, Vol. 17, no. 1160, Apr, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-015-0625-2
G.S. Araujo, C.S. Santiago, R.T. Moreira, et al., Nutrient removal by Arthrospira platensis cyanobacteria in cassava processing wastewater. J Water Process Eng, Vol. 40, no. 101826, Apr, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2020.101826
E.G. Oliveira, G.S. Rosa, M.A. Moraes, L.A. Pinto, Moisture sorption characteristics of microalgae Spirulina platensis. Braz J Chem Eng, Vol. 26, pp. 189–197, Mar, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0104-66322009000100018
N.T.K. Oanh, D.T. Thuy, D.T. Oanh, et al., The domestic wastewater treatment capacity of Spirulina platensis SP4 and the application of the treated wastewater in stimulating rice germination. Viet J Biotechnol, Vol. 20, pp. 773–784, Dec, 2022. https://doi.org/10.15625/1811-4989/16871
D. Selvaraj, M. Arivazhagan M, Synergistic effects of Spirulina platensis cultivation in textile wastewater towards nutrient removal and seed germination study. Environ Pollut, Vol. 357, no. 124435, Sep, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124435
W. Zhou, Y. Li, Y. Gao, H. Zhao, Nutrients removal and recovery from saline wastewater by Spirulina platensis. Bioresour Technol, Vol. 245, pp. 10–17, Dec, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.08.160
S. Bahri, Identification of sources of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) pollution in the abundant growth of aquatic plants in Lake Tempe, South Sulawesi. Jurnal Sumber Daya Air, Vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 159–174, 2018. (in Indonesian). https://doi.org/10.32679/jsda.v12i2.63
H. Chen, Q. Wang, Microalgae-based nitrogen bioremediation., Algal Research 46:101775, Mar, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2019.101775
S. Gupta, S.B. Pawar, R. Pandey, Current practices and challenges in using microalgae for treatment of nutrient rich wastewater from agro-based industries. Sci Total Environ 687:1107–1126, Oct, 2019 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.115
R. Bossa, M.D. Colandrea, G. Salbitani, S. Carfagna S, Phosphorous utilization in microalgae: physiological aspects and applied implications. Plants 13:2127, July, 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13152127
P. Srimongkol, P. Sangtanoo, P. Songserm, W. Watsuntorn, A. Karnchanatat, Microalgae-based wastewater treatment for developing economic and environmental sustainability: current status and future prospects. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 10:904046, Sep. 2022. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2022.904046
X. Liu, Y. Hong Y, Microalgae-based wastewater treatment and recovery with biomass and value-added products: a brief review. Curr Pollut Rep 7:227–245, April, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-021-00184-6
Badan Standarisasi Nasional., SNI 6989.59:2008 – Water and wastewater Part 59: Methods for sampling wastewater. 2008. [in Indonesian].
M.I. Firdaus, S.K. Saptomo, J. Febrita, Performance evaluation of wastewater treatment plant unit Bojongsoang, Bandung. Jurnal Teknik Sipil dan Lingkungan, Vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 35–48, 2018. https://doi.org/10.29244/jsil.3.1.35-48 (in Indonesian).
R.R. Wilcox, Introduction to Robust Estimation and Hypothesis Testing, Fifth Edition, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2019-0-01225-3
V.K. Gupta, & A. Rastogi, Biosorption of lead(II) from aqueous solutions by non-living algal biomass Oedogonium sp. and Nostoc sp.—A comparative study. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 64(2), 170–178, July, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2008.01.019.
A.A. Zevhiana, & T.A. Rachmanto, Nitrate Reduction in Domestic Wastewater Using an Air-Lift Photobioreactor Based on Microalgae, Jurnal Serambi Engineering, IX(2), 8941–8951, Apr, 2024. (in Indonesia).
H. Fan, K. Wang, C. Wang, et al., A comparative study on growth characters and nutrients removal from wastewater by two microalgae under optimized light regimes. Environ Technol Innov, Vol. 19, no. 100849, Aug, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2020.100849
Setiawan A, Firdatul Jannah F, Ramadani TA, Dewi TU. (2022) Removal of phosphate and ammonium in wastewater using struvite precipitation with addition of bittern. Jurnal Pengendalian Pencemaran Lingkungan (JPPL), 4(1): 21–28. (in Indonesian)
G. Kwon, J. Nam, D. Kim, et al., Growth and nutrient removal of Chlorella vulgaris in ammonia-reduced raw and anaerobically-digested piggery wastewaters. Environ Eng Res, Vol. 25, pp. 135–146, Mar, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2018.442
A. Ghasemi, S. Zahediasl, Normality tests for statistical analysis: A guide for non-statisticians. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 10(2): 486–489, Apr, 2012. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijem.3505
J.H. Huh, S. Kwon, K. Park, E.H. Jho, S. Hwang, Effect of light intensity and phosphate concentration on the storage and utilization of phosphate in Chlorella vulgaris. Environ Eng Res, 30(6): 250050, Mar, 2025. https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2025.050
T.L. Palikrousis, C. Manolis, S.D. Kalamaras, P. Samaras, Effect of light intensity on the growth and nutrient uptake of the microalga Chlorella sorokiniana cultivated in biogas plant digestate. Water 16:2782, Sep, 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16192782
Downloads
How to Cite
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Roslinda Ibrahim, Eddy Setiadi Soedjono, Marhamah Nadir, Zarah Arwieny Hanami
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain the copyright and grant the journal the right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) after its publication in ETASR with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
